Literature review of concepts and theories of Motivation, literature review on motivation.3/29/2017 So one of the key points is to motivate students intrinsically, and this leads to autonomy which I am going to talk about in a later section. However, interesting findings were discovered from Noels, Pelletier, Clement, and Vallerand's study (2000) on students registered in English psychology class at French-English bilingual university. The study showed "To foster sustained learning, it may not be sufficient to convince students that language learning is interesting and enjoyable; they may need to be persuaded that it is also personally important for them." This seems like a common sense, but as a second language learner myself, I strongly agree with this result. If you are adult learner, interesting and enjoyable learning is not enough. They need to feel the importance of learning as well, and then they can vision themselves in terms of future prospect, or job-related salaries and so forth. Most teachers feel that motivation is a key factor in successful language learning, but what is motivation? According to many researchers, there are so many definitions of what motivation is and what isn't. It seems somehow incomplete. In the field of second language acquisition, the concept of motivation came from social psychology. So the first purpose of this literature review is to discover the types of motivation and define the motivation in this paper. Dornyei (1996) claims that most nations in the world are multicultural and the majority of people in the world speak more than one second language. These facts underscore the importance of the social dimension of language learning motivation, however, this social dimension is not the only major constraint of language learning motivation. Motivation to learn a second language is a complex and eclectic psychological construct that involves several non-social factors as well. In Dornyei's study of Hungarian secondary school learners of English (ages17-18) including scales focusing on some learner traits as well as the learners perception of the classroom environment and the dynamics of the learner group, she came up with the results which was the lack of a major motivational component, namely that of instrumental motivation. She believes instrumental motivation is a central component of motivation where it is relevant, that is, where relatively short-term pragmatic, utilitarian benefits are actually available for the learners. If by such benefits we mean job or salary-related motives, instrumental school students in the study, pragmatic rewards appeared quite remote, and the wish to prepare for a bright career was related to getting higher qualifications review journal article, and thus to obtaining knowledge. She contended that "foreign language learning" in a classroom setting could not logically involve attitudes toward the L2 community, because learners have little or no contact with members of the L2 group. Her study showed that instrumental goals indeed played a prominent role in the learning of English up to an intermediate level. Not only is anxiety related to motivation, but it is also related to proficiency and more so to communication proficiency, as suggested by Clement, Dornyei, and Noels (1994). Abstract Clement, Dornyei and Noels (1994) concluded from their study that on the one hand, good classroom atmosphere promotes students involvement and activity while moderating anxiety and promoting self-confidence. On the other hand, the students bring into the classroom a level of self-confidence and anxiety related to extracurricular experiences with the language, the quality and quantity of which would then influence classroom behavior, achievement and anxiety. Accordingly, being active in class means believing that one is able to use English outside the classroom. In the same line with Gardner, Deci and Ryan (1985) created the intrinsic/extrinsic motivation theory. They claim that learners who are interested in learning tasks and outcomes for their own sake (Intrinsic) rather than for rewards (extrinsic) are likely to become more effective learners. More specifically, according to them, Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation to engage in an activity because that activity is enjoyable and satisfying to do. Extrinsically motivated behaviors are those actions carried out to achieve some instrumental end, such as earning a reward or avoiding a punishment. This type of motivation does not necessarily imply a lack of self-determination in the behaviors performed. Dickinson (1987) claims that success enhances motivation only in children who are focused on learning goals, that is, who are intrinsically motivated. According to Koestner & McClelland (1990), research on intrinsic motivation has led to the conclusion that intrinsic motivation will be greatest under conditions that foster feelings of challenge, competence, and self-determination. They also claim that if external events enhance feelings of competence, as when someone is told he or she has done a task very well, intrinsic motivation is likely to increase. By contrast, events that lead to feelings of incompetence are likely to undermine intrinsic motivation. If you take a look at a situation in Japan, English is set to learn as a second language from junior high school, so that means at least three years of compulsory study for all Japanese. If you go onto high school, you will have to learn English for another three years. It is also in the process of implementing in elementary school in the near future. With all the hard work we put into learning English, many of the students will not be able to acquire the skills we need to communicate. I believe motivation to learn has something to do with this situation. Motivation determines the degree of effort you put into foreign or second language learning. The more motivation you may have, the more effort you tend to put into learning the language. It leads to success in learning. Overall, ecocultural factors related to (a) children's perceptions of themselves as readers and their value of reading, (b) teacher perceptions of children's motivation to read, and (c) children's reading achievement. McCombs, B. (1989). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: A phenomenological view. In B. J. Zimmerman & K. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and achievement: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 51-82). New York: Springer-Verlag. Ricardo, a nine-year-old boy, lives with his mother, father, and younger sister. They occupy two rooms with access to a kitchen, dining room, and bathroom shared with other tenants. Ricardo's parents immigrated from Mexico; both children were born in the United States. Ricardo's father is a permanent resident who works with a demolition company. He did not have an opportunity to attend school and does not read or write. Ricardo's mother is an undocumented worker in the garment industry--an unstable situation due to economic conditions in the larger economy. She attended three years of formal schooling in Mexico, where Spanish was the language spoken in the home. Neither parent spoke English, but Ricardo had been placed in English-only classes for at least second and third grade. Dunn, L. M. (1987). Bilingual Hispanic children on the mainland: A review of research on their cognitive, linguistic, and scholastic development. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. Our examination of the current literature on motivation and reading engagement suggests that the majority of investigations are confined to a single plane of development, most notably the individual plane. A great deal of the work on motivation and reading engagement has focused on the individual dimensions of the construct, even though recent models recognize the need to consider the role of social interaction and, to a lesser extent, the role of the immediate social context (Baker, Afflerbach et al. 1996; Baker, Allen et al. 1996; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000; Sonnenschein et al. 1996; Thompson, Mixon, & Serpell, 1996). Little work in the area of reading motivation and engagement has examined motivational issues from all three relevant dimensions: the individual (cognitive), social-interactional, and cultural-historical level. Wigfield, A. & McCann, A. D. (in press). Children's motivations for reading. The Reading Teacher. Wigfield, A. Eccles, J. S. & Rodriguez, D. (1998). The development of children's motivation in school contexts. In P. D. Pearson & A. Iran-Nejad (Eds.), Review of research in education,Vol. 23 (pp. 73-118). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Reese, L. Balzano, S. Gallimore, R. & Goldenberg, C. (1995). The concept of educacion: Latino family values and American schooling. International Journal of Educational Research, 23 (1), 57-81. Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 2, 202-209. Rogoff, B. Baker-Sennett, J. Lacasa, P. & Goldsmith, D. (1995). Development through participation in sociocultural activity. In J. Goodnow, P. Miller, & F. Kessel (Eds.), Cultural practices as contexts for development (pp. 45-65). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. School records and teacher comments indicated that Ricardo is not progressing as expected, particularly in reading. He was referred to a special education pull-out program (Resource Specialist Program, or RSP) in the middle of third grade during the second year of the study. At the end of the academic year, the family was informed that he would continue in RSP and that he would be repeating third grade. The reading motivation survey administered by the research team suggests that, although he understands that learning to read is valuable, he believes that he does not read very well. Not surprisingly, the family comments that he never wants to read at home and that he looks ill at ease when asked to read. A sociocultural view of motivation focuses on social features of the task and setting as well as cultural-historical factors as they are embedded in both the activities and the social organization of the context. The theoretical underpinnings of this work are found in neo-Vygotskian theories of learning and development (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Wertsch, 1991, 1998). Motivation, like other psychological characteristics in this view, is less a feature of the individual than a property of the interaction of both the individual and the social context in a dynamic interplay (Oldfather & Dahl, 1994; Oldfather, West, White, & Wilmarth, 1999; Rueda & Dembo, 1995; Rueda & Moll, 1994; Sivan, 1986). Second, while much of the literature on engagement has seemed to assume a close connection between engagement and challenging, meaningful, and "authentic" activities, the data just described suggest that this may not always be the case. Specifically, it does not necessarily follow that because students are engaged, they are necessarily engaged in instructionally challenging activities that might result in future academic success. This suggests the need to independently assess the dimensions of engagement and task quality when examining classroom behavior. It also suggests the need to explicitly connect engagement to high-level challenging activities--a suggestion that has not always been discussed in past literature. The relationships between ecocultural factors, motivation measures, and achievement suggest that children's individual characteristics cannot be considered in isolation; rather, children must be seen as members of families which in turn operate despite and from within the resources and constraints of their environments. In the same vein, we may need a broader perspective on reading motivation-- one that considers the interplay of families' values, beliefs, resources, and constraints, since these are at the core of children's daily practices. Our study indicated that some ecocultural factors were related to children's perceptions of themselves as readers and the value they placed on reading (see Table 4). Culture and language were moderately related to children's self-concept as readers (r = .52, p < .05). In other words, the better readers the children thought themselves, the more likely that their family reported active pursuit of Spanish and English literacy and cultural activities. Nurturance was moderately related to children's value of reading (r = .52, p < .05). Children who valued reading were more likely to be members of families who spent time together and viewed encouragement and affective emotional support as important. Workload also related to value for reading; however, the relationship was inverse (r = -.48, p < .05). The higher the family workload is the personal statement the college essay, the lower the value for reading. Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories, and research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Numerous factors may be at play regarding Guadalupe's success. Despite her parents' limited schooling, Guadalupe has grown up hearing about models of school achievement in the family. Aside from her brother, a number of uncles and aunts finished school in Mexico, and one uncle in Mexico has recently completed the equivalent of a bachelor's degree. In addition, Guadalupe has important models of reading engagement in the home. Her mother often reads in an attempt to learn English. Guadalupe has a large number of books (almost 100) in the home, many of which have been given away at school or been given to her by her teachers. Sometimes the family has used the public library to check out books. Furthermore, Guadalupe's mother has made an important connection with one teacher who provides her with instrumental knowledge about school. The family projects that Guadalupe will attend college; since her brother is in college, they have a much clearer understanding of the educational system. The entire family, including Guadalupe, has visited the university campus. Snow, C. E. Burns, S. M. & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Sociocultural theory emphasizes the interdependence of the three planes. While one plane might be "foregrounded" for analysis, a complete account of learning and development considers all three. In practice, the smallest unit of analysis which contains all three planes simultaneously is the activity setting, or the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the routines that constitute everyday life in and out of school (Tharp, 1997). The overall purpose of the study was to examine the issue of literacy engagement in "at-risk" children. As part of work conducted under the Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA), the study targeted 21 poor non-English speaking Latina/o children (first and second graders at the start of the study) within classroom, home, and community contexts. The children were all students at the neighborhood school of one of the most impoverished inner-city communities in Southern California. They were asked to participate after consideration of initial classroom observations, teacher ratings and recommendations, and school grades and records. Table 1 contains relevant characteristics of these students' families. McInerney, D. M. Roche, L. McInerney, V. & Marsh, H. W. (1997). Cultural perspectives on school motivation: The relevance and application of goal theory. American Educational Research Journal, 34 (1), 207-236. U. S. Bureau of the Census. (1997). Population Division, release PPL-91. United States population estimates by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 1990 to 1997. Washington, DC: Author. Guthrie, J. T. & Wigfield, A. (Eds.). (1997). Reading engagement: Motivating readers through integrated instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Turner, J. (1995). The influence of classroom contexts on young children's motivation for literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 30 (3), 410-441. A review of the literature on motivation reveals that the focus is primarily on individual characteristics. However, the work on motivation in general as well as reading engagement work in particular seems increasingly to recognize the importance of social context to motivation (Ames, 1992). For example what to write for a college essay, some of the characteristics of instructional contexts found to increase intrinsic motivation include social interaction and freedom for the learner (Blumenfeld, 1992; Turner, 1995), practicing real-world literacy tasks (Newby, 1991), and providing learning strategies (Guthrie, McGough, Bennett, & Rice, 1996). Reflecting on this broader perspective, some authors have discussed characteristics of classroom contexts that impact motivation, such as social relationships, task values, and home-school partnerships (Baker connection word for essays, Allen et al. 1996; Guthrie & McCann work on research paper, 1997; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000; Sonnenschein, Brody, & Munsterman, 1996; Wentzel, 1998; Wigfield, Eccles, & Rodriguez, 1998). A wide range of data have been collected on these students, including individual assessments of motivation to read, school file data (test scores, grades, teacher comments), teacher perceptions of students' motivation to read, classroom observations (field notes), focus groups and interviews with teachers and parents, and home visits. The study's overall design was meant to incorporate all of the planes of development described earlier. Given the focus on sociocultural factors in this report, we present data on the interactional features of the instructional settings and data from the larger home/community domain. Au, K. (1997). Ownership, literacy achievement, and students of diverse cultural backgrounds. In J. T. Guthrie & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Reading engagement: Motivating readers through integrated instruction (pp. 168-182). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. The analysis of the motivation measures and the ecocultural factors showed interesting relationships among these variables. Ecocultural factors related to children's perceptions of themselves as readers and their value of reading, teacher perceptions of children's motivation to read, and children's reading achievement. Of particular interest was the dimension of instrumental knowledge, a factor that may be critically important for this population. It might be expected that unfamiliarity with American cultural practices and institutions would be especially salient for recent immigrants. Rueda, R. & Moll cross check plagiarism software, L. (1994). A sociocultural perspective on motivation. In H. F. O'Neil & M. Drillings (Eds.), Motivation: Research and theory (pp. 117-140). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Thompson, R. Mixon, G. & Serpell, R. (1996). Engaging minority students in reading: Focus on the urban learner. In L. Baker, P. Afflerbach, & D. Reinking (Eds.), Developing engaged readers in school and home communities (pp. 43-63). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. With few exceptions, most of the teachers in whose rooms we observed were on emergency credentials. (In the state of California college essays writing, the shortage of teachers in some communities has led to provisions for teachers to work without being fully credentialed while they pursue further training.) Overall, our observations suggested that, although the teachers were hard-working and committed, few activities had any elements of authenticity--that is, recognized by students as meaningful and serving a particular purpose. Much of the classroom work was characterized by drill and practice activities, worksheets, and teacher-directed work. As many authors have noted, such instruction often characterizes the education of students from low SES and non-English speaking backgrounds (Thompson et al. 1996). Childrens' engagement under these types of instructional conditions has important theoretical and practical implications, which we will explore in the discussion section. As the psychological and educational literature begins to broaden the research base to include social-interactional and community/institutional factors, the universality of motivation to read and reading engagement will be reconceptualized as well. The transformation in conceptualization will result in an understanding of motivation grounded in context. Initial analysis of the field notes followed a schema described by Turner (1995) that characterizes classroom activities on a dimension she referred to as open/closed. Turner describes open tasks as those in which students themselves can select relevant information and/or can decide how to use information to solve a problem. Open tasks allow children to frame the problem and design a solution (e.g. students selecting their own books for free reading). Closed tasks are those in which either the task or the teacher delineate the information to be used as well as the expected solution (i.e. one right answer is expected). That is, students are directed to use specific information to come to a predetermined conclusion--a structure that offers students limited opportunities to make decisions. The goal of closed activities is automatic application of practiced skills. In our study, closed activities included things like practice activities and worksheet exercises. We found several instances in the data where activities shared aspects of both codes. We therefore categorized these as "mixed." Ruddell, R. B. Ruddell, M. R. & Singer, H. (Eds.). (1994). Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed.). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Ecocultural factors also related to children's reading achievement (see Table 2). Immigration was related to the teacher's perception of the child's reading achievement (r = .57, p < .01), and reading grade (r = .53, p < .05). The higher the reading achievement and the reading grade essay about money, the more likely the family was to make changes to adapt and hold a positive view about the adaptations they were making to live in the host country. Instrumental knowledge moderately related to teacher's perception of child reading achievement (r = .54, p < .05) and strongly related to reading grade (r = .68, p < .005). The higher the reading achievement and reading grade, the more likely the family was to have access to and/or knowledge about institutions, including schools. Finally, culture and language related to the child's reading achievement (r = .57, p < .05) and reading grade (r = .67, p < .01). The higher the reading achievement and reading grade, the more likely the family was to report active pursuit of Spanish and English literacy and cultural activities. Rogoff, B. (1994). Developing understanding of the idea of communities of learners. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 1, 209-229. It is critical that we acknowledge this variability among the children, families, and community in our study. While all come from the "same" cultural background, the variability and complexity we observe belie the usefulness of group labels for explanatory purposes. Explanations for individual children's engagement must account for the complexity and variability present in their daily practices. Their everyday routines and cultural practices, as opposed to static ethnic labels that imply homogeneity of behavior and beliefs, are prominently shaping children's learning and development. There are some important differences between this family and Guadalupe' s that seem to impact Ricardo's schooling experience in less favorable ways. For one thing, the family has considerably less instrumental knowledge about the educational system in the United States. For example, our interviews revealed that Ricardo's mother did not have a clear idea of the three-tier system of schooling in the United States (elementary school, junior-high/middle school, and high school), which is different from Mexico's. Nor did she know that completion of high school meant twelve years of schooling. Furthermore, Ricardo and his sister did not seem to have any models in the family for academic achievement or reading engagement. The family lacked an important connection with anyone at the school that could provide them with needed support regarding their children's education. Not surprisingly, Ricardo's mother did not have a clear understanding of the types of programs that her son had been placed in and erroneously believed that the purpose of the research study was to teach the children how to read. Fromboluti, C. S. (1994). Mini-digest of education statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Educational Statistics. While virtually all of the students in our sample meet the criteria for "at-risk" status by almost any measure, we nevertheless have begun to see differences among them in ways that illustrate the complex interaction of the planes of development as they impact school success in general and engagement in particular. We present two cases here to illustrate these issues. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. (1991). The Hispanic population of the United States: March 1990. (Current Population Reports, Series P-25 No. 995). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Culture and Language Oldfather, P. & Wigfield, A. (1996). Children's motivations for learning. In L. Baker, P. Afflerbach, & D. Reinking (Eds.), Developing engaged readers in school and home communities (pp. 89-114). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sonnenschein, S. Brody, G. & Munsterman, K. (1996). The influence of family beliefs and practices on children's early reading development. In L. Baker, P. Afflerbach, & D. Reinking (Eds.), Developing engaged readers in school and home communities (pp. 3-20). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. McInerney, D. M. (1992). Cross-cultural insights into school motivation and decision making. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 13, 53-74. Madrigal, P. Cubillas, C. Yaden, D. B. Jr. Tam, A. & Brassell, D. (1999). Creating a book loan program for inner-city Latino families (CIERA Report #2-003). Ann Arbor: CIERA. Alternative working patterns such as job-rotating, job-sharing, and flexible working have been branded as effective motivational tools by Llopis (2012). Moreover, Llopis (2012) argues that motivational aspects of alternative working patterns along with its other benefits are being appreciated by increasing numbers of organisations, however, at the same time; many organisations are left behind from benefiting from such opportunities. Kreitner, R. & Cassidy, C. (2012) “Management” Cengage Learning An interesting viewpoint regarding the issue has been proposed by Wylie (2004), according to which members of management primarily should be able to maintain the level of their own motivation at high levels in order to engage in effective motivation of their subordinates. Accordingly, Wylie (2004) recommends managers to adopt a proactive approach in terms of engaging in self-motivation practices. This point has been explained by Lockley (2012) by insisting that certain practices such as engaging in constructive arguments and dialogues in workplace can prove to be highly motivational for the representatives of Western culture, whereas the same set of practices can prove to be counter-productive for employees from Asian countries due to vast cross-cultural differences. Thomas, K.T. (2009) “Intrinsic Motivation at Work: What Really Drives Employee Engagement” 2 nd edition, Berrett-Koehler Store Shields alain botton de essay in love, J. (2007) “Managing Employee Performance and Reward: Concepts, Practices, Strategies” Oxford University Press Based on these reasoning motivational essays, this paper shall include analytical and empirical studies to reveal the discrepancies and feasibility aspect of the domain, as Rai (2004) put forward; motivation is crucial for good performance and therefore it is increasingly important to study what motivates employees for better performance. This section offers a review of literature, which explores the concepts, types and theoretical aspects including content and process theories, theories of motivation developed in other psychological areas as well as empirical evidences in organizational contexts. In addition Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) conducted research in a number of firms in South Africa to investigate the impact of need satisfaction on self-esteem and of self-esteem on performance intention as suggested by Alderfer (1972). According to the empirical results, self-esteem was found as a significant determinant of employee job performance and results showed that providing frontline employees opportunities to perform challenging work, allow participation and teaching them new things on the job will enhance their self-esteem as well as their performance intentions (Arnolds and Boshoff, 2002). The authors argued that the experiment also showed that the satisfaction of fringe benefits does not have a significant impact on performance intentions via self-esteem as an intervening variable and this support Herzberg's et al. (1959) theory. In addition Frey (1997) note that high intrinsic work motivation evolving from work which is interesting involves the trust and loyalty of personal relationships and is participatory. However, under certain circumstances, intrinsic motivation can be diminished, or ''crowded-out'' by external interventions like monitoring or pay-for-performance incentive schemes. This was also supported by Frey and Jegen (2001) who reviewed the literature on intrinsic motivations and found that the evidence does suggest that incentives sometimes do ''crowd-out'' intrinsic motivations. Besides, Frey (1997) suggests that the important matter is whether the external intervention is in the form of a command or a reward. Commands are most controlling in the sense that they seize self-determination from the agent, while rewards might still allow autonomy of action. Motivation is defined as "a human psychological characteristic that add to a person's degree of commitment. It is the management process of influencing employees' behavior". (Badu, 2005) B.F. Skinner (1953) compared to need and process theories, came up with a different theory known as the reinforcement theory in which he proposed that people's behavior is dependent upon its consequences. He suggested that if consequences of behavior is positive then such behavior will be repeated and vice-versa. Skinner (1953) argued that behavior can thus be reinforced through different forms of reinforcement or rewards. According to him individuals can be influenced in four different ways given by positive reinforcement (a reward such as praise so that the person repeat the behavior), negative reinforcement (rewarding employees by removing unwanted consequences), extinction (deliberately withheld positive reinforcement to discourage unwanted behavior) and punishment (applying undesirable consequences for unwanted behaviors). In a nut shell, different authors have put forward the concept of motivation differently. Nonetheless, these definitions have three common aspects, that is, they are all principally concerned with factors or events that stimulate, channel, and prolong human behavior over time (Steers et al. 2004). Content theories tend to focus on individual needs and attempt to explain the factors within a person that stimulate and stop behavior (Reid, 2002). According to Bassett-Jones and Lloyd (2005), content theory assume a more complex interaction between both internal and external factors, and explored the circumstances in which individuals react to different types of internal and external stimuli. Furthermore, McGregor (1960) postulates Theory X and Theory Y which is based on assumptions about people and work. According to this theory, there are two types of assumption made with regards to employees whereby theory X assumes that employees are lazy and therefore theory X suggests that in order to motivate employees a more autocratic style of management is required. On the other hand theory Y assumes that workers enjoy work, committed to objectives of the organization and will apply self control and self directed in the pursuit of organizational objectives and therefore does not require external control. However this theory has also been criticized to a large extent, for example Wahba and Bridwell (1973) argued that based on the ten factor analytic studies that have attempted to test Malow's theory; there is no clear evidence that human needs are classified into five different categories, or that these categories are organized in a special hierarchy. The authors contradict Malow's proposition and points out that, "none of the studies has shown all of Maslow's five need categories as independent factors", for example some studies have showed that the self-actualization needs may emerge as an independent category. They also argued that studies have also proved the issue of need deprivation and the domination of behavior to be different from that suggested by Maslow. Moreover results have also proved that either self-actualization or security are the least satisfied needs and social needs are the most satisfied. Therefore it is difficult to determine the general pattern of the degree of satisfaction and these trends are not the same as proposed by Maslow (Wahba and Bridwell, 1973). With regards to Adams Equity theory, Levine (1993) calculated wage residuals for more than 8,000 manufacturing employees. Wage residuals reflect employees' wages relative to employees with similar demographics and human capital in terms of education and training (Ambrose and Kulik, 1999). Levine found that employees with higher wage residuals reported that they were less likely to leave, were more satisï¬ed with their pay, were willing to work harder than they had to, and were more committed to the organization. Therefore in line with this argument, the author pointed out that employees with low wage residuals might be expected to experience inequity or unfairness relative to similar others and exhibit negative responses. Along with the content theories, there are also different process theories. According to Viorel et al. (2009) the content theories emphasize on specific factors that motivate workers with regards to certain necessities and aspirations, while the process theories emphasize on the processes and the psychological forces that have an impact on motivation. They start from the premise that motivation starts with the desire to do something. The process theories provide more realistic principles with regards to motivation techniques and therefore they are more useful to managers compared to content theories (Viorel et al. 2009). Besides based on the Goal Setting theory, Stansï¬eld and Longenecker (2006) performed a study in a traditional manufacturing plant in the Midwestern USA to develop a model of efficient and effective goal setting and feedback practices for manufacturing. According to the authors the study showed that an information system, facilitating goal setting and feedback can play a vital role in improving individual performance levels. Stansfield and Longenecker also found that employee motivation and performance were both improved in the study, which lead to better organizational performance and proï¬tability. The authors also argued that goal setting and feedback can create competitive advantage for manufacturers with a minimum investment of time and capital if they implement these practices with proper coordination. Moreover Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) conducted research in a number of South African firms whereby they analyzed the application of the expectancy theory put forward by Vroom (1964) and they argued that the satisfaction with pay and fringe benefits does not impact on the performance intentions of frontline employees because these need satisfactions do not have any esteem valence for these employees. In other words, frontline employees do not have a higher regard of themselves if they are getting enough pay to fulfill basic necessities (Arnolds and Boshoff, 2002). The maximization of employee's motivation to attain the organization's goals can only be obtained through a complete understanding of motivation theories (Reid 2002). There is a wide variety of theoretical frameworks that have been developed in the attempts to explain the issues related to motivation. Stoner essays for sale, Edward and Daniel (1995) has described two different views on motivation theory, given by the earliest views and the contemporary approach which can further be subdivided into content and process theories.
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